Assessment of Aerobic Endurance

INTRODUCTION

Higher education in the UK is undergoing rapid change which is placing much pressure on staff and students. There are moves to widen access, increase student numbers, provide more vocationally oriented courses, provide better value for money, improve quality and inject information and communications technology (ICT) into all facets of student learning (Somekh, 1998). There is an expectation that ICT will be able to deliver teaching and learning which is much more cost
effective than traditional methods.

The University of Strathclyde offers an undergraduate programme in
sport and exercise science in which students attend conventional lectures and participate in practical laboratory classes. This takes places within all three aspects of the course, viz., exercise physiology, motor control and biomechanics. Practical involvement in laboratory classes is viewed as a critical part of the students'learning experience because it demonstrates the application of theory and acquaints students with some of the practical skills of testing and research which are central to the profession of sport science. Thus it can provide students with a sense of authentic engagement (Edward, 1997).

Within the field of exercise physiology, laboratory sessions provide students with practical experience of the main laboratory techniques used to assess aerobic endurance (cardio-vascular and metabolic efficiency). However, there are special difficulties in relation to the mounting of these laboratories which are not apparent in the other two areas. In general, they require the use of expensive equipment and techniques which, to be effective, must involve only a limited number of students per session (generally 5-10 students) under the supervision of a designated tutor. From a resourcing point of view, it is not possible to provide multiple stations to run the same practical experiment with different groups simultaneously. In the context of growing pressure to increase the number of students to the course, it will become more and more difficult to sustain the practice of mounting practical laboratories on the techniques used to assess aerobic endurance as a core element of the students' provision.

Another problem that is peculiar to exercise physiology laboratories is the use of invasive techniques. All measurements involving the use of blood samples create several problems. Ethical specifications must be followed and in general an approval from the Ethics Committee is required. The collection of blood samples must be performed by
qualified and trained personnel. In most cases each laboratory has one or more people specifically trained for this kind of procedure, but in the case of stations running in parallel, there are clear resourcing problems. Furthermore, all procedures involving blood and other organic manipulation must be performed according to precise and expensive guidelines (for example, safety regulations for waste disposal). Analysis of the blood samples is expensive, especially if the analytical test is not used routinely. In most cases tests are conducted with serial sampling so that the costs can be multiplied by the number of samples from each of the selected participants.

A number of studies have examined these problems within the context of the biomedical sciences, in an attempt to determine if computer assisted learning (CAL) techniques can resolve some of the difficulties. For example, Dewhurst et al. (1994) compared the effectiveness of a traditional laboratory approach with a CAL program to teach undergraduate students basic concepts of nutrition transport in rats. One group worked independently using the CAL program and associated learning materials whilst a second group followed a conventional class working under laboratory supervision. Before and
after tests of knowledge and attitude revealed equivalent knowledge gains in each group, and that students taking the CAL method demonstrated positive attituces to this approach. The cost of the conventional method in terms of staff time and consumables was considered to be about five times greater than the CAL approach. Other
evaluations of the effectiveness of CAL type programs have also shown that students using computer simulations of particular practical laboratories perform equally as well in their assessments (for example, Fawver et al., 1990; Guy and Frisby, 1992).

Some recent studies have compared computer based learning (CBL) with lectures. Dewhurst and Williams (1998) conducted a comparative study to evaluate the effectiveness of two CBL programs covering the cardiovascular system, as an alternative to lectures. The study demonstrated that the programs were as effective as the lecturers in disseminating factual information, however the students generally preferred the lectures, although they recognized both the advantages and drawbacks of CBL as a mode of teaching. Of course, as Dewhurst and Williams point out, it is not always possible to make clear distinctions between different approaches to teaching in higher education--one lecturer's idea of a tutorial or lecture might be quite different from another's, Also, the quality of the lectures or tutorials and of the CBL package are key factors in the comparison.

A study designed to provide evidence to the Review of Higher Education in the UK (Dearing, 1997) examined the value of Information Technology (IT) assisted teaching and learning in a variety of different subjects (for example, education, dentistry, environmental science). It showed, however, that the benefits are complex and diverse and not always generalisable across different subjects. The gains in terms of staff time are not always apparent, since development time as well as individual tutorial time that IT methods generate may offset any saving over traditional delivery methods.

Computer simulated practical experiments can provide environments in which students have opportunities to develop their understanding about phenomena, isolate and manipulate parameters and thus develop an understanding of the relationships between concepts, variables and phenomena, employ a variety of representations, and investigate phenomena which are difficult to experience in a classroom or laboratory setting (Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2001). Thus they would seem to offer a promising alternative to conducting the real experiments by providing opportunities for deep learning to accrue. Furthermore, their use may promote independent learning and give students more control over their pace of learning, as well as when and where they learn. Students will also experience a consistent course delivery (Dewhurst and Williams, 1998).

The present study was designed to see if current ICT could be harnessed to resolve some of the practical and ethical difficulties encountered with teaching basic principles of physiology in the practical laboratory, whilst seeking to ensure that students developed a sound knowledge and basic understanding of exercise physiology. To this end, internal funding was obtained to develop a CD-ROm package containing simulations of five tests of aerobic endurance, and to conduct an independent, formative evaluation comparing students' attainments and experiences of the computer vs. the traditional laboratory setting.

Essential practical laboratory and research skills, such as learning about the practical circumstances which might lead to error and discrepancy and how these would be dealt with during data analysis, will continue to be developed within the practical laboratories linked to other course topics and within a research methods module.

THE CD-ROM CONTENT AND DESIGNThe CD-ROM was designed to inform students about the laboratory assessment of lactate profiles for endurance athletes. Its main sections cover the theory of lactate metabolism, five simulated assessments including their methodology, required equipment, documentation (including any permissions, for example, from the Ethics Committee), protocols and results analysis, self-assessment questions (SAQs) on each test, and a list of references to journal articles (Figure 1 shows the main menu page).

Clicking on a section takes the user to another menu (Figure 2). From here students can return to the main menu, go directly to any topic in that section, or move forward a page at a time through all the topics in that section.

Once inside a topic, students can click on the camera icon to view photographs, or follow hypertext links, for example, to view diagrams of the site of lactate production. Students can enter data and run simulated tests which show video sequences. The data is plotted on screen as each simulation is run. The test results can be viewed as a table and graph (Figure 3).

After the simulated test has been run and the results evaluated, students can attempt a set of SAQs (Figure 4) designed to test knowledge and understanding.

METHOD DESIGN AND DATA ANALYSIS

A case study method was adopted in which a formative evaluation was conducted. A randomised group, pre/post test experimental design was used to compare the attainments of students on the traditional laboratory based course with those of students using the CD-ROM. Students in both groups were assessed before and after the course using an identical written test, produced by one of the course tutors, which contained fifteen multiple-choice items. These items were designed to assess simple factual knowledge and basic understanding. Care was taken to ensure that none of the items related too specifically to the CD-ROM content, which could bias the results. The use of this type of test to assess knowledge has limitations--it is an inadequate tool to assess learning and cognition--however it was felt that the test results, when placed against other findings, would still provide some useful information on the effectiveness of the teaching and some useful feedback to the students. A split-plot factorial design was applied to the test data, involving pre- and post-measures of student learning (test score/15) and a single independent variable (learning method--CD or laboratory practice) (Kirk, 1968). The data was subjected to a two-way analysis of variance.

Collins (2000) argues that simply comparing performance in computer and traditional courses is not the best way of deciding on the success of new approaches; other comparisons need to be made. Detailed questionnaires have been constructed to probe a range of dimensions of students' learning experiences on the course, containing both closed-response and open-response items. These were designed separately for each group but with overlapping content to enable comparisons to be made. The main sections were on:.

* background information (6 items), covering age, gender, prior experience with computers and educational software etc;.

* how the student learned about and studied the experiments in the practical laboratory or when using the CD-ROM (13 items);.

* comparisons between the two settings (12 items). The CD-group was asked to compare with other recent experiences of participating in practical laboratory experiments, while the practical laboratory group was asked to compare with other recent experiences of using computer based learning packages; and.

* the student's opinions on the design and content of the CD-ROM (CD group only--18 items).

The data from closed items were analysed using frequencies, percentages and a two-tailed Chi-squared comparison. Students' written responses were analysed by there. The questionnaire construction, administration and data analysis were conducted by an independent evaluator (an academic colleague from outwith the sport science field) who had no prior involvement in the CD-ROM design or course delivery, in an effort to reduce any potential bias in the conduct of the evaluation towards the new method. The evaluator also conducted informal observations in each setting, intended to inform the questionnaire design and to provide points of comparison with other findings. Every effort was made to ensure that tutor effort was directed equally towards each method and that the tutors were not seen to favour one approach over the other, thus eliminating another potential source of bias.

PARTICIPANTS

The permission of twenty eight, second year BSc Sport and Exercise Science students was sought to participate in the study. Some students were concerned that the CD-ROM might prove to be an inadequate substitute for the practical laboratory in terms of gaining theoretical knowledge, which could result in them failing the module. An assurance was given that all students could have unlimited access to the CD-ROM for the purposes of revision or reinforcement once the study was completed, and that any necessary support would be provided. They were divided randomly into two equal groups. An analysis of age, gender, prior experience with using computers, prior experience with using educational CD-ROM software and computer ownership, showed no significant differences between each group (x2 (greater or equal) .05). Thus the two groups could be regarded as equivalent in these respects.

PROCEDURE

The written pre-test was administered to both groups together. The practical laboratory group then attended two, three-hour sessions one week apart, in which they participated in the five tests of aerobic endurance. In each test, one student acted as subject and a partner recorded data. For both sessions, students were split into two groups of seven and two laboratory tests were conducted simultaneously. At similar times, the CD group attended the computer laboratory supervised by one sport science tutor. These students only used the CD-ROM in class. Thus each group spent the same time in each setting with a tutor present. The post-test was administered a week later to both groups. Following the post-test students completed the questionnaires, which were issued by one of the study evaluators at a time set aside before a lecture with no tutors present. These were completed anonymously.

RESULTS

The study generated both quantitative information in regard to knowledge gain through the course, and qualitative information in regard to the questionnaire findings. These will be dealt with in turn.

QUANTITATIVE DATA

Twenty-three students (11 from the CD group and 12 from the practical laboratory group) completed both pre- and post-test. The mean scores for pre- and post-tests for each learning method are shown in Table 1 and Figure 5.

The two-way analysis of variance (Table 2) revealed no significant difference (p (greater or equal) .05) between the two learning methods and no significant (p (greater or equal) .05) interaction between method and pre/post test scores. However, there was a significant improvement (p (less than or equal) .001) between pre- and post-test
scores.

What these results demonstrate is that significant gains in factual knowledge took place over the course (p (less than or equal) .001), but the extent of learning was independent of the instructional method.

QUALITATIVE DATA

Twenty-four students, 13 from the CD group and 11 from the practical laboratory group, completed questionnaires (an 86% response rate). The findings on how students learned and studied, and their opinions of the design and content of the CD-ROM (CD group only) and the relative merits of the computer and practical laboratory settings are summarized below.

In relation to how students learned and studied, the practical laboratory group expressed greater confidence in their understanding of all five tests (Figure 6). For two of the tests--Maximal Lactate Steady State and Lactate Minimum--these comparisons were statistically significant (p (less than or equal) .05).

The practical laboratory setting also proved to be more successful at engendering interaction, particularly between student and tutor (Tables 3a and 3b). Practical laboratory students discussed the experiments more with other students and with tutors both during the laboratory (this was borne out by the observations in each setting) and afterwards. The questionnaires probed how much background reading students had done in order to learn the theory behind the tests and their protocols. Any references on the CD-ROM to further reading were readily accessible to students in the library through multiple copies having been lodged, with the approval of the Copyright Licensing Authority or the journal itself. Over half of the CD group respondents did not do any background reading whilst all practical laboratory group respondents read at least three journal articles. Students' comments on the reading indicated that the majority found the journal articles to be a difficult read. Also some students found it difficult to make the connection between the article and the actual or simulated tests:.

Found some very complicated in terms of: structure, terminology, analysis of results. Found it difficult to pinpoint areas which would be of use for the exam... The journals and articles read were in depth, yet focused on a specific study, rather than relating directly to the tests done.

All respondents made their own notes during the course. Students in the practical laboratory group stressed getting to understand the material as a reason for doing this, as well as revising for the test:.

To learn about background physiology, how valid each protocol was considered to be and to help decide which test was the best to use when assessing aerobic endurance. To structure study notes. To note things I didn't understand and wanted to read about. To help remember important points.

In contrast, the majority of students in the CD group stressed mainly preparation for the test:.

We were told we were to be tested. I noted down Information that I didn't know, basically everything.

Some CD group respondents commented that there was far too much information to commit to memory, and therefore they noted the salient points, in much the same way, perhaps, as they might do during a lecture.

The SAQs were answered by all of the CD group respondents. The questions were found by them to be helpful in terms of clarifying ideas, providing further insights, identifying key points, demonstrating the application of theory, enabling progress to be checked, and providing reinforcement of learning. This provides some evidence of the CD group respondents' attempts to get to grips with the material at a deeper level.

The CD group students were asked to evaluate a range of aspects of the CD-ROM relating to its design and content by attaching a rating (on a five-point scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree) and commenting against each of 17 statements. The majority of respondents indicated that they found the CD-ROM to be well constructed and easy to navigate. Its content was clearly set out, relevant to the course and well explained. The presentation of the experiments was viewed as consistent and was considered to be enhanced by the use of the video clips. However, on feedback, the CD-ROM performed less well, with only three respondents in agreement that this dimension was adequate (the others were doubtful). While the majority of respondents did find the simulations helpful for understanding the theory and results, they still preferred to do the real experiments in the laboratory and were undecided or disagreed with the suggestion that other parts of their course should be taught in this way. When asked to suggest improvements to the design, content or use of the CD-ROM, students' suggestions
focused mainly on content (for example, reduce the amount of information and highlight key points) and use (for example, provide an accompanying handout or booklet).

All students were also asked to compare practical laboratory and computer laboratory settings. The majority of respondents agreed that it was more expensive to run the practical laboratory (92%), it takes longer to do the experiments there (52%), and using the CD-ROM avoids the discomfort of doing this type of experiment in the practical laboratory (63%). Furthermore, using a computer simulation gives you more control over the pace of learning and the order in which you learn things (75%), and you can try the experiments with different subjects and settings in a simulation (52%).

However, in favour of the practical laboratory setting, the majority of respondents agreed that the lecturer spends more time with students there (75%). Also, few respondents agreed with the view that using a computer simulation can lead to the acquisition of practical laboratory skills (17%), and few disagreed with the view that a computer simulation conveys little sense of the real experiment (17%). Nearly all agreed that it is essential for all students of sport and exercise science to participate in real experiments (96%), and that students who need laboratory skills for their future careers can only acquire them through doing practical experiments (88%). However less than half (46%) viewed this as the only successful way to reinforce theory. Most thought that there is a place for computer simulations when used in conjunction with practical demonstrations of the experiments (71%).

DISCUSSION

This case study was an attempt to determine whether the teaching of fundamental principles in exercise physiology could be mediated using modern computer techniques as opposed to traditional laboratory based methods. The reason behind the study was the need to identify teaching approaches which reduce demand on human and physical resources, which also circumvent the ethical difficulties surrounding the use of invasive techniques, and which are as effective in terms of developing students' knowledge and basic understanding of exercise physiology. The study compared the relative effectiveness of a traditional laboratory approach with one which focused student learning on the use of a specially developed CD-ROM containing simulations of five laboratory tests. The outcomes (as measured by a written test) were not significantly different for each group, and both groups showed substantial knowledge gains.

When interpreting these outcomes, however, it is important to recognize that they relate to the particular circumstances surrounding this case, for example, had the quality of the practical laboratory sessions been poor, the outcomes may have been different (Dewhurst and Williams, 1998). The CD-ROM method has been shown, in this case, to be an effective medium for developing knowledge and basic understanding of exercise physiology. In this regard, it supports other studies concerned with teaching various aspects of physiology (for example, Dewhurst et al., 1994). The validity of comparative studies such as this, involving pre- and post-test measures, is frequently contested in the literature. Tolmie (2001, 235) argues that a more context-sensitive approach needs to be adopted both to the introduction and evaluation of ICT in education:.

"Although ICT resources are commonly expected to produce uniform benefits, they are necessarily employed within pre-existing contexts of educational and social activity, and the outcome in terms of both pattern of use and learning depends on how they fit in with these. As a result the same technology or software may have unexpectedly diverse effects, according to specific setting.".

The questionnaires explored a range of aspects of student learning and student involvement to enable the outcomes from the pre- and post-test to be properly contextualized. (The limitations of the test, as a straightforward measure of factual knowledge and basic understanding as opposed to practical applications of theory and principles, have already been noted.).

The students were able to recognize both the advantages and the disadvantages of the CD-ROM as a mode of teaching, however on balance they preferred the practical laboratories. It appears that the CD method, as enacted in this study, did not encourage students to engage sufficiently in background reading or interaction with fellow students and staff. The CD method also limited the confidence students placed in their learning and the depth of understanding of important principles. Some students, for example, felt the CD method focused their minds on the examination at the end of the course rather than on a full understanding of the principles expressed throughout the course. The CD method has therefore failed to engender the desired deep approach to learning (Biggs, 1988). Dewhurst et al. (1994) identified similar problems in using computer based simulations. They showed that computer based methods work best only if they also provide opportunities for staff/student contact. They also found that computer simulations can fail to develop essential practical laboratory skills or convey a sense of reality. Edward (1997) has argued that participating in the
practical laboratory is part of the socialization process for undergraduate engineers--it conforms to their expectations of what engineers do in the field and makes them feel like qualified engineers. Students participating in the practical laboratory experiments in this study may similarly have experienced a sense of authentic engagement.

Tearle, Davis and Birbeck (1998) have painted a more positive picture. They suggest that information technology can play a central part in the development of teaching and learning approaches in higher education. In particular, it can be harnessed to develop higher-order skills and also to give students access to materials not easily available by other means. They specify a variety of situations where information technology can play an effective role. They suggest it works where the topic is well specified and remains relatively static over time; where the IT requires little development and is readily accessible to staff and students; and where the IT removes impediments to learning or teaching. When the present study is matched against these criteria, there is a strong overlap. The measurement and assessment of aerobic endurance is a subject which is well described in the literature and certainly well established and understood at a level appropriate to the needs of undergraduate students in sport and exercise science. In this regard, it can be specified in clear terms which are unlikely to change significantly over the next few years. The use of a CD-based learning environment also removes a number of barriers to learning and teaching, for example, it negates the need to seek ethical clearance to perform tests of aerobic endurance, it results in reduced costs and frees up tutor time to enable other forms of interaction to take place, for example, tutorials. The only criterion not met concerns the
developmental costs of the CD materials. This is a key factor, but it can be argued that the overall outlay is reduced if the developmental costs are set within a wider context. For example, the materials and learning model tested in the present study could be applied, with modification, to other aspects of physiology and exercise science (so long as this does not seriously erode the practical element of courses). Bearing in mind that these materials would have a significant lifespan and could also take advantage of existing materials (still and video images), this would reduce the overall costs considerably. There is also scope to spread costs further through sharing expertise and materials amongst other institutions (Tearle, Davis and Birbeck, 1998) and commercial marketing. Certainly there are numerous sport and exercise science courses in the UK which could benefit from this kind of collaboration.

On balance, there would seem to be significant potential for development of a CD-based approach to learning/teaching in exercise physiology. However, a number of issues have to be addressed because the questionnaire findings do not support the complete substitution of computer-based simulations for practical laboratory sessions, or at least not in the manner that they were introduced in this study. There is a need to examine approaches which permit students to interact more and develop greater confidence in their understanding of principles. An effective approach must also facilitate a deeper approach to learning, in which students' main focus is upon getting to understand rather than learning facts for examination purposes. The SAQs were a positive feature of the CD-ROM, enabling students to examine, for example, the application of theory to practice and to clarify ideas. This kind of feature should be built upon in any subsequent revisions to the CD-ROM.

The goal of strengthening students' understanding could be facilitated by combining practical laboratory experience with use of CD-ROM materials. For example, in the present case, students could examine some tests to assess aerobic endurance using the CD method and others through practical hands-on experience in the laboratory. Conducting the least well understood experiments (Ventilatory Threshold and Lactate Minimum tests) in the practical laboratory would enable face-to-face discussion and questioning to take place. Assistance with interpretation could be provided through tutorials, peer collaboration or online tutor support using the Internet or email (viewed as the most successful kind of ICT in higher education--Somekh, 1998). A written guide could be used to link the CD-ROM with the practical laboratories and with wider reading, which in turn might encourage students to read more and assist overall management of the learning/assessment experience. The inclusion of an element of practical work would permit the use of an assessment instrument which taps into understanding through practical application and not simply the recall of facts. An approach like this would not remove all the difficulties and costs associated with running practical laboratories, and would involve investment of further resources and time.

This formative evaluation has provided clear pointers to the types of modifications to course materials and delivery which need to be put in place in order to enhance student learning. A start has been made for the next cohort by introducing face-to-face tutorials to accompany the use of the CD-ROM and by producing a written guide.

Added material.

Margaret Kirkwood is a Senior Lecturer in Educational Studies at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, where she has taught for 17 years. She obtained her PhD in Education and Computing Science from the University of Glasgow by researching the development of children's thinking, problem-solving and metacognitive skills through learning programming. Her research interests include the educational uses of ICT. Bob Sharp is a Reader in Sport Studies and has taught at the University of Strathclyde for 27 years. His research interests span curricula and IT issues in physical and coach education as well as gender matters in outdoor leadership. He is currently a Leverhulme Fellow researching mountain safety. Giuseppe De Vito is a physician specialised in Sports Medicine. He obtained his PhD in Exercise Physiology from the University La Sapienza of Rome in 1994. He is currently Reader of Exercise Physiology at the University of Strathclyde. His main research interests are muscle function and ageing, and heart rate variability assessment. Myra Nimmo is Professor of Exercise Physiology in the Strathclyde Institute for Biomedical Sciences. University of Strathclyde. Her particular research interests are in thermoregulation and metabolism. Address for correspondence: Dr Margaret Kirkwood, Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Strathclyde, 76 Southbrae Drive, Glasgow, Scotland G13 1PP. Tel: +44 (0) 141 950 3229; fax: +44 (0) 141 950 3367; email: m.j.kirkwood@strath.ac.uk.

Table 1: Mean pre-test and post-test scores (out of 15) for each group.

(TABLE) Pre-Test Post-TestCD-ROM 8.09 10.64Laboratory 8.00 10.25..

Table 2: Analysis of variance summary table.

(TABLE)Source SS df MS FBetween Ss 177.48 22 Lab/CD 6.26 2 6.26 0.77 Ss within Groups 171.22 21 8.15Within Ss 185.69 23 Pre/Post 96.38 1 96.38 23.96(FN*) Pre/Post by Lab/CD 4.82 1 4.82 0.286 Pre/Post by Ss within Groups 84.49 21 4.02.

FOOTNOTE* p (less than or equal) .001.

Table 3a: Frequency of interaction between students.

(TABLE) During labs Afterwards CD group Lab group N CD group Lab group NNot at all 4 (33%) 0 (0%) 4 6 (50%) 1 (9%) 7Occasionally 8 (67%) 9 (90%) 17 6 (50%) 10 (91%) 16Frequently 0 (0%) 1 (10%) 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0.

Table 3b: Frequency of interaction between students and tutor.

(TABLE) During labs Afterwards CD group Lab group N CD group Lab group NNot at all 9 (75%) 0 (0%) 9 12 (100%) 3 (27%) 15Occasionally 3 (25%) 4 (40%) 7 0 (0%) 5 (45%) 5Frequently 0 (0%) 6 (60%) 6 0 (0%) 3 (27%) 3.

Figure 1: Main menu page.

Figure 2: Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS) section--menu page.

Figure 3: Maximal Lactate Steady State simulated test sequence.

Figure 4: Self assessment questions on the Maximum Lactate Steady State test.

Figure 5: Improvement as a function of method.

Figure 6: Students' self assessments of understanding.

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