# Lecture 24 - Electromagnetism Review

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## Magnitude of magnetic field

If we consider wire of which length $l$ lies within a magnetic field we find that the force depends on $l$ as well as the current $I$. We can write an equation that contains this information as well as the right hand rule for the direction that we identified earlier. We can give the length of the wire a direction and make it a vector $\vec{l}$. The current is then defined to be positive when it flows in the direction of the length vector. The force is then

$\vec{F}=I\vec{l}\times\vec{B}$

or in the diagram below

$F=IlB\sin\theta$

We can also chop the length up in to infinitesimal pieces which produce infinitesimal forces to accommodate a wire that changes it's direction with respect to a magnetic field, or a non-uniform magnetic field.

$d\vec{F}=I\,d\vec{l}\times\vec{B}$

## Force on a moving charge

Electric charges in a wire feel a force but are not free to leave the wire, so the effect is force on the wire. Free electrons in a magnetic field also feel a force and are free to respond to it. In the same way as wire only feels a magnetic force when a current flows, charges only feel a magnetic force when they are moving and the force depends on the velocity. For a single charge $q$

$\vec{F}=q\vec{v}\times\vec{B}$

As before we can use a right hand rule to determine the direction of the force, we simply replace the current with the direction of the velocity of the charge.

The Lorentz equation combines the electric force and the magnetic force on an charged particle

$F=q(\vec{E}+\vec{v}\times\vec{B})$

## Path of an electron in a uniform magnetic field

We can show that the path of an electron moving in a uniform electric field is a circle. As we will recall from when we studied uniform circular motion, a force perpendicular to the velocity changes the direction of the velocity only, not it's magnitude. The centripetal force is provided by the magnetic field

$\frac{mv^{2}}{r}=qvB$

The radius of the circle is then

$r=\frac{mv}{qB}$

The time it takes for an electron to go round the circle is

$T=\frac{2\pi r}{v}=\frac{2\pi m}{qB}$

and the frequency, which we call the cyclotron frequency, is

$f=\frac{1}{T}=\frac{qB}{2\pi m}$

## Torque on a current loop

When the loop is aligned with the field the net torque experienced will be

$\tau=IAB$

Where $A$ is the area of the loop. For $N$ loops the formula just becomes

$\tau=NIAB$

However we can see that when the loop makes an angle $\theta$ with the field

$\tau=NIAB\sin\theta$

A good way to represent the orientation dependence of the torque is to define a new vector quantity, the magnetic dipole moment

$\vec{\mu}=NI\vec{A}$

The direction of the vector can be determined by the right hand rule and we may now write the torque as

$\vec{\tau}=\vec{\mu}\times\vec{B}$

## Ampere's Law

Ampere's Law is a useful way to determine magnetic field in cases where symmetry makes it practical. It is valid in cases where the magnetic field is static, or in other words when steady currents flow. It also does not apply when magnetic materials are present. (It can however be modified to deal with both changing currents and magnetic materials).

Ampere's law relates the magnetic field that runs around the edge of a closed surface to the current that passes through that surface and is

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot\,d\vec{l}=\mu_{0}I_{encl}$

$\mu_{0}=4\pi\times10^{-7}\mathrm{Tm/A}$ is the permeability of free space.

$d\vec{l}$ is an infinitesimally small length element which points in the direction of a the path around the edge.While any path/surface can be chosen, smart use of Ampere's law relies on using symmetry to make the integral easy.

## Field due to a current carrying wire

For a current carrying wire the right hand rule tells us to choose circular loop centered on the wire, in which case

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}=\oint B\,dl$

because $\vec{B}$ is always parallel to $d\vec{l}$, and as the path is circular

$\oint B\,dl=B\oint \,dl=B(2\pi r)$

So we find that

$B(2\pi r)=\mu_{0}I\to B=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2\pi r}$

## Magnetic Field inside a wire

Within a uniform wire carrying a current $I$ the magnetic field as a function of $r$ can be found from

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}=B(2\pi r)=\mu_{0}I_{encl}$

Inside the wire $I_{encl}=I\frac{\pi r^{2}}{\pi R^{2}}$ so

$B(2\pi r)=I\frac{\pi r^{2}}{\pi R^{2}}\to B=\frac{\mu_{0}Ir}{2\pi R^{2}}$

Outside the wire $I_{encl}=I$ so

$B=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2\pi r}$

## Magnetic field of a solenoid

In tightly wound solenoid we can deduce that the field strength inside is much greater than outside, and that also components of the magnetic field perpendicular to the solenoid axis cancel out. .

We can see that the integral $\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}$ reduces to $\int_{c}^{d} B dl$ which is simply $Bl$. If the rectangle includes $N$ wires then

$Bl=\mu_{0}NI$

This is more usefully expressed in terms of the number density of wires in a unit length, $n$

$B=\mu_{0}\frac{N}{l}I=\mu_{0}nI$

## Magnetic field of a toroidal solenoid

Within the interior radius of the torodial solenoid the enclosed current is zero, and thus also the magnetic field is zero, as

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}=B(2\pi r)=0$

Within the solenoid, which has $N$ turns

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}=B(2\pi r)=\mu_{0}NI\to B=\frac{\mu_{0}NI}{2\pi r}$

And outside of the solenoid we again find

$\oint\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{l}=B(2\pi r)=0$

## Biot-Savart Law

The Biot-Savart law gives a different approach for obtaining the field due to a current distribution. The field at some point in space due to an infinitesimal length $d\vec{l}$ through which a current $I$ flows is

$d\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\frac{d\vec{l}\times\hat{r}}{r^{2}}$

$\vec{r}$ is the displacement vector from the element $d\vec{l}$ to to the point and $\hat{r}$ is the unit vector in the direction of $\vec{r}$.

In the above diagram the magnitude of $d\vec{B}$ is

$dB=\frac{\mu_{0}Idl\sin\theta}{4\pi r^{2}}$

The total magnetic field is found by integrating over all the elements

$\vec{B}=\int d\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int\frac{d\vec{l}\times\hat{r}}{r^{2}}$

We have to pay attention the directions of the $d\vec{B}$ vectors when we evaluate this integral!

## Magnetic field due to a straight wire

$\vec{B}=\int d\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int\frac{d\vec{l}\times\hat{r}}{r^{2}}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{dy\sin\theta}{r^{2}}$

We need to write $r$ in terms of $y$, $r^{2}=R^{2}+y^{2}$ but we also need to realize that $y$ and $\theta$ are related to each other and $\sin\theta=\frac{R}{r}$.

$\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{dy\sin\theta}{r^{2}}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{R\,dy}{r^{3}}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{R\,dy}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{3/2}}$

$=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{1}{R}(\frac{R^2\,dy}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{3/2}})=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{1}{R}(\frac{R^{2}+y^{2}}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{3/2}}-\frac{y^{2}}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{3/2}})\,dy$

$=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{1}{R}(\frac{1}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{1/2}}-\frac{y^{2}}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{3/2}})\,dy=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}[\frac{1}{R}\frac{y}{(R^{2}+y^{2})^{1/2}}]_{-\infty}^{\infty}$

$=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\frac{2}{R}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2\pi R}$

## Magnetic field due to a curved segment

The Biot-Savart law $d\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\frac{d\vec{l}\times\hat{r}}{r^{2}}$ tells us that current parallel to $\hat{r}$, or in other words current flowing directly towards or away from a point does not produce a magnetic field.

So in the following example we only need to consider the current due the curved part of the wire.

Everywhere along the wire $d\vec{l}$ is perpendicular to $\hat{r}$ and the contribution from each length element points in the same direction, so $dB=\frac{\mu_{0}I\,dl}{4\pi R^{2}}$.

$B=\int\,dB=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi R^{2}}\int\,dl=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi R^{2}}(\frac{1}{4}2\pi R)=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{8R}$

## Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop

In the case of a current loop the Biot-Savart Law, $d\vec{B}=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{4\pi}\frac{d\vec{l}\times\hat{r}}{r^{2}}$, tells us that magnetic field $d\vec{B}$ for a point on the $x$ axis due to a length element $d\vec{l}$ has magnitude

$dB=\frac{\mu_{0}I\,dl}{4\pi r^{2}}$.

Here we should note that $d\vec{l}$ is always perpendicular to $r$ and the direction of the field that is produced may be determined by the right hand rule.

We can note that the symmetry of the situation will lead to the magnetic field perpendicular to the axis cancelling out when we integrate over all the contributions from the loop, so we can write that

$B=B_{||}=\int\,dB_{||}=\int\,dB\cos\phi=\int\,dB\frac{R}{r}=\int\,dB\frac{R}{(R^{2}+x^{2})^{1/2}}$

$=\int\,\frac{\mu_{0}I\,dl}{4\pi r^{2}}\frac{R}{(R^{2}+x^{2})^{1/2}}=\frac{\mu_{0}I\,dl}{4\pi}\frac{R}{(R^{2}+x^{2})^{3/2}}\int\,dl$

$=\frac{\mu_{0}I\,dl}{4\pi}\frac{R}{(R^{2}+x^{2})^{3/2}}2\pi=\frac{\mu_{0}IR^{2}}{2(R^{2}+x^{2})^{3/2}}$

## Magnetic flux

Faraday based his law of induction around the concept of magnetic lines of force. He found that the induced emf depended on the rate of change of the total amount of magnetic field passing through an area, which we call the magnetic flux.

$\Phi_{B}=\int\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{A}$

or when the magnetic field is uniform

$\Phi_{B}=\vec{B}\cdot\vec{A}$

In the example above the magnetic flux is

$\Phi_{B}=\vec{B}\cdot\vec{A}=BA\cos\theta$

where $A=l^{2}$.

The unit of magnetic flux, is called a weber $\mathrm{Wb}$, where $1\mathrm{Wb}=1\mathrm{Tm^{2}}$

Faraday's law of induction states that the induced emf in a circuit is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

$\mathcal{E}=-\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$

If the circuit is made of a number of loops, $N$ that are wrapped so that the same flux passes through them all the net emf in the circuit is the sum of the emf from each loop

$\mathcal{E}=-N\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$

“An induced emf is always in such a direction as to oppose the change in flux causing it”

## Motional emf

A conductor moving in a magnetic field will experience a induced emf. We can consider the situation for a conducting rod moved backwards and forwards on a pair of rails which are connected to galvanometer, as in this applet.

The emf produced is given by the change of flux

$\mathcal{E}=-\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}=B\frac{dA}{dt}=-\frac{Blv\,dt}{dt}=-Blv$

But what about the case where the rails are not there?

In this case the electrons still feel the force and will collect at one end of rod, so there will be a potential difference across it. Independent of whether a current flows or not there will be an induced emf in the conducting rod and $\mathcal{E}=-Blv$

## General form of Faraday's Law

It is important to remember that an emf is not a force, but rather a measure of the work done in a circuit, so we can write the emf in terms of an integral over a closed path of the electric field

$\mathcal{E}=\oint\vec{E}\cdot d\vec{l}$

and then

$\oint\vec{E}\cdot d\vec{l}=-\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$

Here we are taking an integral around the path that encloses the area in which magnetic flux is changing.

We should not that the implication of this is that in the presence of a time varying magnetic field the electric force is no longer a conservative force.

## emf produced by a generator

We saw in previous lectures that a torque could be produced on a current carrying loop placed in a magnetic field and that when appropriate commutation was used an electric motor could be made.

If we now think about it the other way round and consider the change in flux on a loop as it is rotated by some external torque we can see that it should produce some emf which can be used as the basis for an electric generator.

$\mathcal{E}=\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}=-\frac{d}{dt}\int\vec{B}\cdot d\vec{A}=-\frac{d}{dt}BA\cos\theta$

If the loop rotates with a constant angular velocity $\omega=\frac{d\theta}{dt}$ then $\theta=\theta_{0}=\omega t$ and we can say that

$\mathcal{E}=-BA\frac{d}{dt}(\cos\omega t)=BA\omega\sin\omega t$

of course if there are $N$ loops

$\mathcal{E}=-NBA\frac{d}{dt}(\cos\omega t)=NBA\omega\sin\omega t=\mathcal{E}_{0}\sin\omega t$

## Back emf and Counter Torque

As an electric motor accelerates under the action of magnetic force the rate of change of flux $\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$ will get larger, producing an emf which opposes the motion. The total potential driving the current in the circuit is the applied potential and the back emf generated by the changing magnetic flux. When these two are equal the current flowing through the circuit is zero. If there is no other load on the motor the motor would then turn at that speed constantly. Of course any load will reduce the speed, and hence the back emf, so at the constant top speed of a real motor there will still be some current flowing.

In a generator the opposite occurs, if the emf generated is used to produce a current then this produces a counter torque that opposes the motion.

## Transformers

In a transformer two coils are coupled by an iron core so that the flux through the two coils is the same. The iron core is usually layered with insulating materials to prevent eddy currents. When an AC voltage is applied to the primary coil the magnetic flux passing through it is related to the applied field by

$V_{P}=N_{P}\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$

if we assume the coil has no resistance. The emf produced by the changing flux is $\mathcal{E}=-N_{P}\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$ and this means that the net potential drop in the coil is actually zero (as Kirchoff's rules say it must be if the resistance of the coil is zero). The voltage induced in the secondary coil will have magnitude

$V_{S}=N_{S}\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}$

We can thus see that

$\frac{V_{S}}{V_{P}}=\frac{N_{S}}{N_{P}}$

If we assume there is no power loss (which is fairly accurate) then $I_{P}V_{P}=I_{S}V_{S}$ and

$\frac{I_{S}}{I_{P}}=\frac{N_{P}}{N_{S}}$

## Mutual Inductance

In the example of a transformer we assumed that the flux induced in the secondary coil was equal to the flux in the primary coil. In general for two coils the relationship between the flux in one coil due to the current in another is described by a parameter called the mutual inductance.

$\Phi_{21}$ is the magnetic flux in each loop of coil 2 created by the current in coil 1. The total flux in the second coil is then $N_{2}\Phi_{21}$ and is related to the current in coil 1, $I_{1}$ by

$N_{2}\Phi_{21}=M_{21}I_{1}$

As, from Faraday's Law, the emf induced in coil 2 is $\mathcal{E}_{2}=-N_{2}\frac{d\Phi_{21}}{dt}$ so

$\mathcal{E}_{2}=-M_{21}\frac{dI_{1}}{dt}$

The mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1, $M_{21}$ does not depend on $I_{1}$, but it does depend on factors such as the size, shape and number of turns in each coil, their position relative to each other and whether there is some ferromagnetic material in the vicinity.

In the reverse situation where a current flows in coil 2

$\mathcal{E}_{1}=-M_{12}\frac{dI_{2}}{dt}$

but in fact $M_{12}=M_{21}=M$

The mutual inductance is measured in Henrys ($\mathrm{H}$), $1\mathrm{H}=1\mathrm{\frac{Vs}{A}}=1\mathrm{\Omega s}$

## Self-inductance

If we now consider a coil to which a time varying current is applied a changing magnetic field is produced, which induces an emf in the coil, which opposes the change in flux. The magnetic flux $\Phi_{B}$ passing through the coil is proportional to the current, and as we did for mutual inductance we can define a constant of proportionality between the current and the flux, the self-inductance $L$

$N\Phi_{B}=LI$

The emf $\mathcal{E}=-N\frac{d\Phi_{B}}{dt}=-L\frac{dI}{dt}$

The self-inductance is also measured in henrys.

A component in a circuit that has significant inductance is shown by the symbol.

## Self-inductance of a solenoid

We can can calculate the self-inductance of a solenoid from it's field

$B=\mu_{0}\frac{NI}{l}$

The flux in the solenoid is

$\Phi_{B}=BA=\mu_{0}\frac{N_{1}IA}{l}$

so

$L=\frac{N\Phi_{B}}{I}=\frac{\mu_{0}N^{2}A}{l}$